Peaceful people

“This has never happened before and here it is again” – a widely known phrase of one of the politicians of the USSR and the Russian Federation , Mr. Chernomyrdin – would best describe what has been happening for thousands of years in the heads of Homo Sapiens.

When many of us are inspired by some works of art or scientific achievements - be it a popular novel or a movie that has become a trend for a while , or a person gaining sight and the ability to walk thanks to modern technology - we always come to a true delight , the bliss of creation and contemplation. And each time , at the same time , we report that these are simply the most incredible revolutionary and breakthrough discoveries or arts that have ever

were . When many of us encounter a truly huge palette of manifestations of cruelty and violence - be it brutal murders and torture of various animals , including humans , or genocide, Nazism, fascism - each time we "lose the gift of speech" from the emotions of shame , fear , disappointment , and, finally, anger that wash over us. And , just as with positive emotions , we report that the world has never seen such a manifestation of "inhuman atrocities" .

I would like to humbly invite you to stop for a short time and think about whether everything is okay with us .

Are you ready to return from space to earth ? If yes , then go ahead ! I don’t promise that the path will be short and easy , but it will be very interesting .

Chapter I

Let us now concentrate , no matter how it may sound to many , on the aspect of animal psychology . About why our behavior , the actions of Homo Sapiens, are always so contradictory , from lethal to euphoric . About why and how all this is combined in one family , in one city and even in the same society and between them . And what and how influences this .

We will begin by familiarizing ourselves with human behavior from the perspective of scientific knowledge in the fields of anthropology and psychology .

A famous doctor , a representative of evidence-based psychology , the creator of the so-called humanistic psychology , Abraham Harold Maslow turned the worldview of psychology itself upside down and subsequently became famous and recognized in the 60s of the last century , thanks to the works of his life , where he studied the human psyche more "in the everyday" sense of the word . According to Maslow himself, deficit psychologies ( behaviorism and psychoanalysis ) avoided many cultural , social and individual aspects of human manifestation , such as creativity, love , altruism, and so on . According to doctors Robert Frager and James Fadiman, for the existential psychology proposed by Maslow, these are the manifestations of man that were most interesting . Maslow's most famous theory is the theory of motivation based on the hierarchy of needs model . According to doctors Duane P. SCHULTZ and Sydney Ellen SCHULTZ, the highest need that pushes a person to reveal his abilities and talents is , according to Maslow, the need for self-actualization .

And here we will have to "slow down" and very carefully study what is Maslow's theory of motivation with the hierarchy of needs . This is extremely important for understanding the whole essence of this article . Although the doctor of sciences himself did not draw any figures , to simplify the understanding of his works, they usually depict the so-called pyramid of human needs or the Maslow pyramid.

Let's list them from the highest level to the lowest :

5. Self-actualization (self-realization)

( creativity , unlocking potential , spiritual development , personal growth )

⬆ ️

4. The need for respect and recognition

(self-esteem, status , success, achievement , respect from others )

⬆ ️

3. Social needs ( belonging and love )

( communication , friendship, love , acceptance in a group , closeness )

⬆ ️

2. Need for security

(protection, stability , absence of fear , predictability , order)

⬆ ️

1. Physiological needs

(food, water, air, sleep, warmth, sex )

The most interesting thing here is the fact that it is impossible to fully move to the next level without full and constant satisfaction of the needs from the previous levels . I will warn you right away that the following example below is deliberately simplified , linear and consistent to improve understanding of the meaning . In reality, every single , even the smallest elements of a particular need , like the closing and opening of holes when playing the flute , are always in motion ( from completely unsatisfied to completely satisfied ) under the influence of each other in different life circumstances .

So , let's assume a situation where a certain person has what he or she needs : food , water, air, sleep, warmth, and sex ( I ask you not to confuse the latter with such separate aspects as love , parenthood, and living together ). In fact, the first stage also includes natural and integral homeostasis ( a condition for the optimal functioning of the body ) and the elimination of waste products ( defecation and urination ). They are usually not displayed . They are also very important , but below I will use only the second one - elimination .

And so our personality , having at least spontaneously everything from the first stage , is looking for things from the second stage : protection, stability , absence of fear , predictability and order . In other words, stability , predictability and order here are optimization , albeit chaotically , but of already existing needs . That is , the search for such a state in which food , water and so on would arise not spontaneously and chaotically , but already in accordance with some predictable rules . For example, so that water and food were available at some more or less certain and constant or systematic time . As well as air , sleep, warmth, sex and excretion . The state of protection and absence of fear are here consequences of the already built optimization .

Indeed , imagine a person ( personality , whoever it may be ), who , for example, spends an unknown amount of his resources and time every day in search of food . He is always stressed (fearful), feels unprotected , because he does not understand whether he will be able to find food before he becomes so weak that he cannot move and , eventually , dies of exhaustion. The person simply does not have an adequate cause - and- effect relationship in the matter of obtaining food . He does not know what , when and where he should do in order to , according to need, get food . All this applies to other needs of the first level . This is a state that is usually described as a question of existence ( either you are or you are not , it is binary and there is no third ).

It is a different matter when a person finds , say, fruits on the trees . Systematically approaching the trees , he sees that there are still fruits on the trees , eats and is satisfied in the need to "eat" (food). Having become accustomed to such a situation , he forms a cause -and-effect relationship ( conviction ) that there is always food when he needs to satisfy his need for food . He no longer experiences a state of fear and insecurity in this matter . Of course , the same thing happens with the other needs of the first stage on the second "floor" .

And so , let's assume that our person has already found some optimization for all primary physiological needs . In other words, he has found some society where he can systematically satisfy all needs . Excellent ! We are already at the third stage . Here we have the following , already social needs : communication , friendship, love , acceptance in a group , closeness . It is completely logical to assume that our fictional person , who is not in fear , that is, not worried about whether he will still have access to water , food, sex , warmth, sleep, air or excretion , because he has the conviction inside himself , and therefore the confidence that all this can always be obtained at his own discretion , will interact normally with others in society , and not as a beggar / seeker . He will communicate in society with satisfaction and confidence . He will be accepted by certain parts of society as a healthy and normal individual . Will be able to change societies that suit him ( parts of society or different societies ), make friends and calmly leave them . By love and closeness , Maslow, rather , had in mind not a set of specific electrochemical reactions in the body , but some special emotions that arise with the mutual readiness of each person to be maximally open in relation to each other . Arising when trust between individuals is brought to such an inadequate degree at the moment , at which one person imputes to another the right to dispose of personal existence .

Separatum aspectum! I am sure that some of those who managed to read this far have been simply devouring the issue of sex for a long time , namely : if the other basic physiological needs of Homo Sapiens are still clear, then what “normal” person could have thought of including SEX in the basic physiological needs ? What nonsense ?

I urge you not to underestimate the significance of the results of the reflection of the highly respected Abraham Maslow. He was familiar not only with the works of such famous psychologists as Sigmund Freud, Erik Homburger Erikson or Carl Gustav Jung. Yes , they gave primary place to sexuality . But , I ask you to take into account , firstly , that all of them appealed to the knowledge of human biology that was relevant in their time . Let me remind you that almost until the first quarter of the 20th century, psychology studied the soul , not the brain, believing that the brain is simply a separate whole organ , like the heart , simply doing its job of controlling human movements . In its second iteration after Thomas Willis, using the same Golgi method , the research of Santiago Ramón y Cajal by the end of the 19th century had already irrevocably opened the eyes of the scientific community to the structure of the human brain . Maslow created his theory in the 50s and 60s of the 20th century. And he was a representative not of fundamental or practical psychology , but rather of evidence-based psychology , which presupposes a penchant for scientific knowledge . Simply, a visual study of people's lives for the aforementioned psychologists , who became Abraham's predecessors , even in their time, sexuality for human behavior as a whole really showed a very important meaning . Maslow , as a follower , using modern scientific knowledge for his period of time only confirmed the obvious phenomenon . Let us not forget the enormous contribution to the study of the psyche and reflexology of animals , which in the first and second quarter of the 20th century was made by John B. Watson, BF Skinner and I.P. Pavlov, all of whom were considered the "pioneers" of radical behaviorism . In subsequent serious and recognized scientific studies in the field of neurobiology, these correlations of human behavior with sexuality are only confirmed . Moreover , not only in Homo or Primates, but in general in the entire biological kingdom Animalia. Which , however , is not at all surprising , since it agrees with natural selection in the "Theory of Evolution" (On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life) by Charles Darwin. Therefore , it will be completely natural that in our further joint research, sexuality will be present as one of the key , if not the main , elements in human behaviour .

So , after the digression we continue . Now let's move on to a non-linear and sequential situation , but to real life .

We were at the 3rd stage of human needs . Note that interactions in society already exist continuously , even when our fictional person is only at the very first stage of physiological needs . How ? Imagine a weak , hungry and still young person of about sixteen or seventeen years old, without parents and acquaintances in a society in which there is insufficient knowledge about the world around him or there is , but they are developed to a very small degree . In a society where water , food, sex , and maybe even warmth and sleep are in very limited quantities and difficult to access . Well, he wandered into a neighboring tribe! He is already forced to communicate with society , but with basic needs not yet satisfied . It is not at all necessary for frustration to be present simultaneously in all physiological needs , along with the fact that at the same time there may be access to higher needs . I would like to draw attention to the fact that our character's communication in society will be of a completely different nature than in the first example described . There will be uncertainty, insecurity , fear. Therefore, the fictional personality will be in the role of the asking / seeking until he or she more or less realizes the needs of the first (physiological) level and the second .

Yes , in our world everything is really possible, but still , let's limit ourselves to a more real imaginary society . Let's imagine, although... why imagine ? Let's take real societies , but extravagant ones . For example, the tribes of Trobriand, Mangaia and Krung . If we talk about basic physiological needs , then in these societies each member of society will have a much better chance of realizing the need for sex ( since this is encouraged from early childhood ), than in other physiological needs . Okay , let's leave out the air . As far as I know , the overwhelming majority of societies have not yet implemented the idea of charging , in one form or another , for air . However , here, given the difficult situation in the level of knowledge , and therefore technology , it may be more difficult with the issues of water , food , warmth and sleep. So, let's imagine the same teenager who has no parents or relatives . At the first stage, he may face the following situation :

Available

Communication (yes, this is already from the third stage ),

Sex (from the first stage, these societies are partly able to access sex without requiring other conditions ),

Sleep ( also from the first stage , given the peculiarities of climatic conditions for the given tribes , in most situations you can sleep under a tree ),

Heat ( also from the first stage , given the peculiarities of climatic conditions for the given tribes , it is possible not to freeze in most situations even outside ).

Not available

Acceptance in the group ( the third stage , accessibility to sex is not always demanding in this society for initial acceptance by the group ),

Friendship ( the third stage , accessibility to sex is not demanding in this society to the initial presence of real friendship , but on the contrary can arise from sexual behavior ),

Love and intimacy ( the third stage , accessibility to sex is not demanding in this society to the initial presence of love and intimacy , but on the contrary, can arise from sexual behavior ),

Protection, stability , absence of fear , predictability , order (despite the fact that one of the physical needs ( sex ) can potentially be realized , the second stage is not realized , since there is no understanding of how, when and where to get drinking water and food at the desired time ). ( I simplified this point for the sake of understanding deliberately , and did not take into account the electrochemical processes of the nervous system during periods of possible active sexual activity ),

Food ( the first step , if you are not yet accepted by society , it is not a fact that you will have easy , and even more so constant access to food ),

Water ( the first step , if you are not yet accepted by society , it is not a fact that you will have easy , and even more so constant access to drinking water ).

Now let's sum it up . Our person has communication , sex , warmth and sleep. However , he is frustrated with such essential elements as food and water ! Now let's ask ourselves : can a person in existential fear ( extreme anxiety ) communicate on unrelated topics , except for those that would give him direct access to food and water , or at least information about where and how to get water and food ? Yes , sexual interests can surpass other basic needs , but not in a state of complete exhaustion as a result of a long absence of food or water . His body simply will not concentrate on sexual behavior in such a situation . The point is that access to communication ( from the third stage ) cannot be fully realized , even if all the needs from the first group are relevant , if the needs from the second group are not fully realized .

— So what if there are some tribes somewhere on the outskirts of civilization, — you tell me . Okay , okay . Let's consider a more familiar world . A young man ( in this situation, regardless of gender , personal preferences, etc. ) has just started living separately from his parents at the age of 17-18, a beginning student ( let's say he received a grant for his studies ). His parents are quite poor . But everything is fine with him . He is goal-oriented , full of energy , healthy. He studies normally , works part-time to pay for his dorm accommodation and provides for his personal life . He already has real friends , regular sexual relationships . He fully realizes all his needs from the first to the third level . Moreover , thanks to success in some areas during his studies , he already has, to some extent, a significant part of the fourth level : self-respect, some success and partial respect of others . There are even hints on how to move towards achieving self-realization ( the fifth step ).

And so , let's say this person lost one of his limbs as a result of an accident (maybe a car crash ) - his right leg above the knee . Yes , we all feel sorry for our fictional girl or boy (or maybe a hermaphrodite or some other type of self-determination, depending on what you personally imagine ). But let 's return to common sense . Let me remind you that we were talking about a poor person with poor parents . Therefore , in the medium term , and maybe even further , he will not be able to get a new artificial leg using the latest technology . Below is a list of everything that was available to our person before the accident with comments on what changes may occur in the short and medium term as a result of the accident:

1. Physiological needs

All are available , however, there may be a serious violation of the mode of realization of these needs depending on the mental state during the realization and acceptance of the fact that a person will no longer be able to lead the previous , habitual way of life . As a result of the onset of acute post - traumatic mental disorder , a person may experience a serious violation of the activity of the autonomic nervous systems and , as a consequence , the normal metabolism of the body . Separately, it is worth touching on sex . Since he had a permanent close and beloved sexual partner , who , quite likely, as a result of empathy , continues to stay with him , he still has access to the full realization of this need . However , the inevitable changes in the usual relationship between partners will most likely be focused not on the realization of this particular need , but on needs of a different nature: sleep, food, water from the first stage, as well as relatively from the second stage - protection and order .

2. Need for security

As a result of natural changes in the mode of obtaining means of subsistence , the need to pay for treatment , accommodation , as well as as a result of temporary mental disorders - all the needs from the second stage in the short and medium term will become unrealizable . Relative protection and order thanks to a sexual partner , a close friend and lover , and, in addition, parents will be provided . But , it is not for nothing that I use the word relatively here. The fact is that our hero himself no longer has his own sense of protection , order , stability , predictability and , as a result , the presence of fear . He only has to adapt to new conditions in society .

3. Social needs ( belonging and love )

Here is the most interesting part . The person we have imagined still has access to everything from the third group , even more - most likely , the number of friends and support ( acceptance in the group ) has increased due to empathy in connection with the events that have occurred . But there is a nuance . It will not be possible to fully realize all of these needs at this stage . Some part of society , so close to him earlier in sports , although it sympathizes with him , but over time will naturally move further and further away , since he is no longer part of this society . It will not be possible to realize the communication , friendship and acceptance in the group in the past volume , since the second stage has not been realized, and what is the second here , here even part of the first stage is in doubt . The person will simply not be able to satisfy the needs of the previous society for communication and friendship . At any opportunity, the brain will , simply in vain, first of all think about the lack of needs from the second stage . Over time, a huge part of friends and support in society will melt away , because emotions are emotions , and each person has their own life . And love and closeness will increasingly be called into question , more and more often there will be a misunderstanding between once loving partners in the matter of further tactics , not to mention strategy . No matter how much we would like to believe in a happy ending , based on the plots of works of art , it is still very rare .

4. The need for respect and recognition

As you already understand , there is no need to talk about self-respect , success, achievement in the situation described . Respect from others , which for a certain period turned into condolences , will also decrease .

The summary of the above-described , already non-linear , fictional plot is that in our real world, each individual person does not move from one step of needs to the next , as soon as the previous one is fully realized . But is simultaneously on all steps of human needs . And the more fully the previous needs are realized , the higher the chance of the actual realization of higher needs .

Let me give you another example . Our hero , this time a male , is very rich thanks to his parents . He is young, has some education in a particular field . He is successful not thanks to his personal achievements , but thanks to the support of his parents ( it happens ). In his personal opinion ( if he is familiar with Maslow's theory ), he has realized all levels of human needs . And suddenly love and intimacy leave him . Yes , it is not always a sexual partner . It can be one of his parents or other close people . If it is a sexual partner, then , of course, this person has every opportunity to realize one of the primary needs - sex . But this is not the same as love and intimacy from the third stage . A person's behavior in society, be it at work or with friends , anywhere , will change one way or another . A person, sometimes without realizing it , will strive, if not first , then at least thirdly, to replenish the brick from the 3rd step that was knocked out . The very existence of such a need and periodic thoughts about it simply will not provide a full realization of higher needs .

The last example . Let's imagine a person , very respected , educated, purposeful, self-confident, who is currently sitting at some very important and urgent international meeting . Along with everyone else, he is actively engaged in dialogue , has been discussing something for an hour already . For some time now, our character's body has been experiencing unpleasant conditions due to gradually developing flatulence . But here it is important to concentrate on the important issues of humanity , and not on some "non-critical" ailments of the body . And at some point before the next appeal, our person feels a sharply approaching need for flatulence . In simple terms , the desire to fart . And now let's focus very much on what is happening in a person on a mental level . The brain actively, at the request of a person , tries to concentrate and works towards the realization of needs for self-respect , status , success, achievement , creativity , disclosure of potential . And constantly , like an obsessive mosquito , concentration on all this is prevented by only a couple of some needs, but what kind of needs - remember homeostasis and withdrawal from basic ( physiological ) needs ? They are at the origins , and everything else that our hero is now trying to think about is from higher ones . No matter how hard this person tries to hide these distracting thoughts under the influence of anxiety , the psyche will take over. And , in the end , already faced with a situation when you need to seriously concentrate the brain on controlling the sphincters of the rectum in order to avoid embarrassment , the human psyche simply will not allow at the same time not only to think about constructing your sentences , but even to pronounce words . Just put yourself in the place of such a fictional character . I assume that some of the readers know firsthand how our hero would feel , given that many of us have encountered something similar .

The same goes for all other needs . Not all of them are capable of declaring themselves as sharply and persistently as in the example given , but this does not diminish the need for their implementation . Without sex, food , sleep and even water, we can still joke and play the guitar for some time...

You can practice similar to the above examples on your own . I would like to finish the topic of human needs with the following . Social status , as well as financial situation , in no way affect the realization of needs , but are only in some cases mediators on the path to self-actualization . A person can have a true realization of most , if not all , from the list of the fifth group , leading a fairly modest lifestyle . And , conversely, a very financially secure and highly ranked person in society may not have anything truly realized from the fifth step at all , and even something from the previous ones . Read carefully all the needs again and you will understand that all of them are feasible at different levels of available human goods .

Chapter II

If in the previous chapter we focused on the principles of behavior of one individual , now we will move on to the second topic of this work - the interaction of individuals in societies and between societies .

A truly fortunate thing for us , who are already living in the second quarter of the 21st century and have sufficient knowledge about the work of organisms of the Animalia kingdom, is the fact that we still have the opportunity to observe the diversity of life of our closest ancestors - the remaining representatives of the Primates class , except for us, who have survived to this day . Yes , this is truly an amazing fact, given the rather long and not always peaceful life of Homo Sapiens. The opportunity to study the social connections of the remaining Primates without the unnecessary "cultural aspects" that Homo Sapiens are burdened with , gives invaluable results .

I would like to emphasize right away that sensitivity (sensitivity, a feeling of empathy ) is , according to scientific works , not only in Primates. But even in mice . Figurative ( spatial ) thinking , at least at a rudimentary level , is inherent not only in Homo, but also , at least , in the rest of the Homininae.

I will also stipulate that you and I , like most other Primates, are social animals . This implies that we will always have social relationships - some kind of hierarchy , even if it is horizontal ( peer-to-peer ). Without this, society simply will not work . By the way , hello to all those who are zizdus on the principles of complete equality and the ideas of collectivism (socialism and others).

However , it is a completely different matter when we talk about the fact that hierarchy can be implemented in different ways .

Numerous studies conducted by primatologists show (Drew M Altschul 2024) that , depending on the environment , namely the availability of food , water , sleep, air and sex (yes, all of the basic physical needs of a person , which is completely logical , because genetically and mentally we have more in common than many might think ), each suborder , family , genus, species and even intraspecific representatives of different groups as a result of adaptation to environmental conditions have their own versions of social relationships and hierarchies , that is, behavioral “settings” . Sex and sexual relations in general , as a special aspect and the main element for survival , will also be realized differently , depending on the built hierarchy . Again, I will make a reservation that this is the most important element . But more on that later .

If we interpolate the knowledge of human needs according to Maslow to the rest of the Primates, we get something like these steps:

4. The need for respect and recognition

( status , respect from others )

⬆ ️

3. Social needs ( belonging and love )

( communication , friendship, love , acceptance in a group , closeness )

⬆ ️

2. Need for security

(protection, stability , absence of fear , predictability , order)

⬆ ️

1. Physiological needs

(food, water, air, sleep, warmth, sex )

As can be seen from the list shown above , all the same needs remain up to the fourth level , however, in the last one - only respect and status . In one of the most common variations of Primates societies , these needs will be more fully realized only in Alpha ( or highly ranked ) male individuals and their direct descendants . In another most common model of social interactions, there will be an opportunity to realize the highest needs in many representatives at the same time . Let me remind you that from the built social - hierarchical model - behavior will vary greatly : from monogamous relationships to fiercely competing species , the latter of which is usually called patriarchy or matriarchy .

Next we will have to go a little deeper into some details on the issue of connections between and within societies and how sexual behavior correlates with this . For the purpose of further understanding of sexual structures , I will provide some clarification :

Polygamy (from the Greek πολύς — "numerous" and γάμος — "marriage" ) is a form of marital union that allows for the simultaneous marriage of several spouses . Typically, in Western cultures, Homo Sapiens is contrasted with monogamy (from the ancient Greek μόνος "single" + γάμος "marriage"), in which a person has only one partner during his or her life or at any given time . Polygamy includes several varieties : polygyny , polyandry, and group marriage . The meanings of these concepts will be presented in the text below .

According to an important and interesting article by Larissa Swedell , "Sociality and Social Bonds in Primates," published in 2012 in Nature, rare, unsociable Primates species have a voluntary polygynous (Polygyny, Latin: polugunía, Greek: πολυ γυνία) system of marital unions , in which one husband has several wives at the same time . In this variant, the male lives independently in a large territory , which is also inhabited by several females , each of which , in turn, also leads an independent lifestyle . All of them are not often encountered . It should not be confused with polygyny in a harem , which will be discussed below .

Only a small number of species are "characterized by a pair-bonded social system . " Here, one adult male and one adult female form a small social group and defend a territory against other pairs . The mating system in these groups is typically monogamous, although extra-pair matings have been observed (Palombit 1994), and the male usually participates in caring for the offspring , which is unusual among male mammals (Fuentes 2002) . "

"Many marmosets and tamarins ( the genera zaris, sagoin , and tamarin of the family Callitrichidae) live in single-female groups (author's note, matriarchy ), characterized by cooperative breeding , " writes Larissa Swedell. "In this type of system, usually only one female reproduces , and this female suppresses the breeding of any subordinate females through aggression and / or pheromonal ( olfactory ) cues . There is usually more than one breeding male , so the mating system is polyandrous (author's note, Polyandry, a system of sexual relationships in which one female has several husbands ), which is rare among mammals . Some or all individuals in these groups participate in caring for the offspring , and so this social system is often called cooperative polyandry . "

One of the most common social systems of the Primates, according to Larissa Swedell, is the one-male band (author's note, patriarchy ). "Here, a single adult resident male defends a group of ( usually ) philopatric (author's note, from Philopatry, never leaving the group ) related females from other males and , for the duration of his tenure , enjoys exclusive mating access to these females ( polygyny , discussed above ). Sometimes called harems , these groups are always at risk of being taken over by non-resident males, who typically form all-male bands while awaiting their chance to become resident males. Often, takeovers are accompanied by infanticide , in which the new resident male kills the young infants of the group . This behavior results in the mothers returning to estrus ( sexual receptivity ) earlier than they otherwise would . "

The second most common social system is , according to Larissa Swedell, a variation of the multi-male, multi-female group , "in which several individuals of each sex form large social groups in which the mating system is usually polygynandrous ( that is , both males and females are polygamous in that they mate with multiple members of the opposite sex ). These are the largest primate groups , and are usually quite complex socially , with differentiated social and kin relationships between group members . " In most cases, females remain in the group , while males move on to other groups .

In addition to the previous system, there is a similar variation of the social system where its members are "less cohesive" , "occupy very large home ranges in which temporary feeding groups split and merge over time as resource availability and the reproductive state of females change" . According to Larissa Swedell, "such social systems are typically characterized by female migration and male Philopatry " . In other words, males generally remain in the group , and females move between groups .

The last described variant of the social system includes : our closest ancestor, the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), the bonobo (Pan paniscus) and the spider monkeys (Atelidae).

We now need to consider chimpanzee societies (Pan troglodytes) separately and from another side of behavior , namely, from the point of view of aggressive social behavior .

Aaron A Sandel and David P Watts in "Lethal Coalitional Aggression Associated with Community Dispersal in Pan troglodytes at Ngogo, Kibale National Park , Uganda" examine in detail the causes of collective aggressive behaviour in this species . In the introduction they mention that "many animals engage in aggression , but chimpanzees stand out in terms of lethal attacks on adults of their own species . Much lethal aggression occurs between groups , where coalitions of male chimpanzees sometimes kill members of neighbouring communities who are strangers . "

In their paper “Lethal Coalition Attacks by Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) on Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) in the Wild,” Lara M. Southern, Tobias Deschner and Simone Pika summarize their findings : Between 2014 and 2018 , we observed nine direct interactions between individuals from the Rekambo community and wild gorillas… These events were always peaceful and sometimes involved communal foraging from fruit trees . However , in 2019, we observed two encounters that resulted in lethal coalition attacks in both cases . The first encounter involved a group of 27 chimpanzees and a group of five gorillas . The second involved a group of 27 chimpanzees and a group of seven gorillas… The first event occurred after a territorial patrol , during which the males (author's note, gorillas ) made a deep incursion into the neighboring chimpanzee territory . The second event occurred at the beginning of the supposed territorial border patrol . Both events (author's note, lethal ) occurred already at the outer edges of Recambo's (author's note, chimpanzee ) territory. The main aggressors in both cases were adult male chimpanzees…"

In a paper by a team of scientists titled "Lethal Aggression in Pan Is Better Explained by Adaptive Strategies Than Human Interventions , " the researchers ask whether the increasing aggression of chimpanzees (Pan) is a result of human interference in their lives or not . Here's what they write in the abstract : Observations of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan paniscus) provide valuable comparative data for understanding the significance of killing . Two sets of hypotheses have been proposed . Lethal violence is sometimes the result of adaptive strategies , such that killers end up gaining fitness benefits while increasing their access to resources such as food or mates. Alternatively , it may be a non-adaptive result of human interventions such as habitat modification or food provision . To distinguish between these hypotheses , we collected information from 18 chimpanzee and 4 bonobo communities studied over five decades . Our data include 152 killings (n = 58 observed, 41 inferred, and 53 suspected killings ) of chimpanzees in 15 communities and one suspected killing of a bonobo . We found that males were the most frequent attackers (92% of participants) and victims (73%); most killings (66%) involved intercommunity attacks ; and attackers significantly outnumbered their victims ( mean ratio 8:1). Differences in killing rates were not associated with rates of human exposure . Our results are consistent with previously proposed adaptive explanations for chimpanzee killing , while the human exposure hypothesis is not supported .

In a paper titled "Infanticide in Chimpanzees : Taphonomic Case Studies from Gombe," researchers Claire A Kirchhoff, Michael L Wilson, Deus C Mjungu, Jane Raphael, Shadrack Kamenya, and D Anthony Collins examine the extent to which infanticide in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) is explicable in terms of food needs . They conclude that "the cases reported here suggest that chimpanzees may not always completely consume infanticide victims , whereas reports of chimpanzee predation have indicated that complete cannibalism usually occurs . Infanticidal chimpanzees undoubtedly derive nutritional benefit from eating dead infants , but this benefit may not sufficiently explain infanticide in this species . " Further study of infanticidal and hunting behaviour , including skeletal analysis , would likely be of interest .

Researchers Adriana E Lowe, Catherine Hobaiter, Caroline Asiimwe, Klaus Zuberbühler , Nicholas E Newton-Fisher in their paper "Intracommunal infanticide in wild eastern chimpanzees : a 24- year review" write the following in the summary : "Infanticide is well documented in chimpanzees , and various hypotheses have been proposed to explain this behaviour . However , because chimpanzee infanticide is a relatively rare phenomenon , it has not been possible to thoroughly test these hypotheses until now . Here we present an analysis of the largest infanticide dataset from a single chimpanzee community , a complete record of all intracommunal infanticides and failed infanticide attempts over a 24- year period for the Sonso chimpanzee community in Budongo Forest , Uganda. We use these data to test four hypotheses for this behavior : the sexual selection hypothesis , male mating competition , resource competition, and meat acquisition . Our dataset consisted of 33 attacks on 30 victims, 11 of which were " definite " infanticides , four of which were "almost certain , " nine were "suspected," and nine were "attempted" infanticides . Most attacks in which the perpetrators were known (23), the attackers were male , and the victims were disproportionately young ( two-thirds of victims with known ages were under 1 week old). Our data provide the best support for the sexual selection hypothesis for infanticide . Cannibalism was rare and partial , suggesting that meat acquisition was a by-product of infanticide , and there was no evidence that infanticide was part of a male strategy to eliminate future competitors . Female infanticide was rare , but we speculate that sexual selection acting through same-sex competition may also be responsible for female infanticide .

The genetic aspect in behavior , rank and structure of societies. This part may seem more complicated , but it is very important for understanding the significance of individual mental settings in the matter of social relationships .

After reviewing nearly 30 sources of scientific articles on the interactions between rank , social status, and some genetic variations , we conclude that research shows that some genetic variations are significantly associated with social behavior and leadership in chimpanzees .

In particular, polymorphisms of the vasopressin V1a receptor gene (AVPR1A) have been studied, which affect the neurobiology of social behavior in primates . Vasopressin is a neuropeptide that regulates social behavior and aggression , especially in male mammals . In many species ( rodents , primates , including humans ), variations in the AVPR1A promoter region are associated with aggressiveness , territoriality , level of socialization, and pair bond formation .

In parallel, the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR), another neuropeptide system that influences social bonding and empathy , is also being studied . However , oxytocin receptor variations are currently poorly understood in chimpanzees . Oxytocin is generally associated with friendly , cooperative behavior , while vasopressin is more often associated with hierarchy and competition in males .

In a study of 83 chimpanzees examining vasopressin (AVPR1A) dependence , it was shown that among carriers of at least one copy of the long allele, males scored significantly higher on the dominance scale and lower on conscientiousness ( self-control ) than females with the same genotype . Robert D. Latzman et al. in 2014 divided individuals with long alleles into two subtypes and introduced the concept of "alpha" and "beta" personalities in chimpanzees : "alpha" individuals are characterized by high dominance and low controllability (disinhibition), while "beta" individuals are characterized by low dominance and high sociability . According to them , chimpanzee carriers of this allele demonstrated a more pronounced alpha behavioral tendency (more dominance and ease) in males , while females , on the contrary , showed a more "beta" tendency .

Interestingly, in a study by Anestis et al. (2014), the long AVPR1A allele was found to be associated with a “socially intelligent” behavior style in Western chimpanzees – implying greater social savvy , cooperation, and dominance – and this effect was not explained by testosterone levels alone .

In other words , female carriers of the long allele exhibit more cunning , thoughtful leadership behavior ( beta personality ), rather than simply increased aggressiveness ( alpha personality ), and the differences persist even when controlling for hormonal factors .

According to the research of WD Hopkins, ZR Donaldson, LJ Young, depending on the subspecies, about ~60-80% of representatives of chimpanzee societies (Pan troglodytes) carry the short allele variant , and only ~20–40 % – the long allele . In other words, approximately 60–80% of society display leadership potential through strength, aggression, impulsiveness, and vertical dominance (the “alpha” variant), whereas only around 20–40% possess the potential to lead via the “beta” variant—charisma, strategic thinking, cooperativeness, and social adaptability (flexibility).

the AVPR1A and OXTR genes in 27 scientific papers in humans , we can conclude that the genes of the oxytocin and vasopressin neuropeptide receptors (OXTR and AVPR1A) make, as in chimpanzees , a significant contribution to the variation of human social behavior .

Regarding the influence of the alleles of the oxytocin gene (OXTR) in humans, the following can be said . Representatives with long alleles will demonstrate more trusting behavior , the ability to understand and empathize with the feelings of others , an increased tendency toward prosocial behavior and trust , which indirectly contributes to altruism and cooperation , while carriers of short alleles may be somewhat less empathic and socially open .

In addition , the presence of long alleles will serve as a kind of resistant mechanism in difficult stressful situations in childhood , and, accordingly , its carriers will be less prone to the development of behavioral problems . While carriers of short alleles are more susceptible to the negative influence of an unfavorable environment in childhood and demonstrate an increased risk of aggressive and antisocial behavior in the future .

These data fit into the differential susceptibility hypothesis : the G allele ( long ) makes a person more sensitive to positive stimuli ( social support alleviates stress in GG ( two long alleles ) much more effectively ), while the A allele ( short ) is more sensitive to negative influences .

However, some studies have noted that the reduced empathy and high emotional reactivity characteristic of OXTR A carriers may contribute to more aggressive reactions in socially stressful situations . For example, GG homozygotes were found to have a stronger experience of social isolation and a stress reaction in an experiment on exclusion from a group , which unexpectedly also indicates their vulnerability in certain contexts . At the same time , A carriers, as other data show , more often develop traits associated with a deficit in social perception ( which may increase the risk of aggressive behavior ). Thus , the picture is complex : OXTR variants do not directly “code” aggression or goodwill , but through their influence on empathy , trust, and stress resistance, they indirectly affect the tendency to conflict or dominant behavior .

As for the variations of the vasopressin gene AVPR1A ( arginine vasopressin receptor 1A), the picture is as follows . Carriers of long alleles will be associated with an increased tendency to altruism and generosity , although in preschool children , the opposite effect was found . They will also behave more cautiously in trust games : they are characterized by reduced gullibility and less willingness to cooperate , presumably due to a greater fear of being deceived , in contrast to carriers of short alleles , who , in turn, are more inclined to trust and show increased reciprocity .

In addition , males with long alleles have difficulty forming strong pair bonds . Thus , long allele gene variants associated with monogamous behavior in other animal species (e.g., voles ) are correlated with mild impairments in monogamous attachment in humans .

This does not mean that there is a "fidelity / infidelity gene , " but it does highlight the role of the vasopressin pathway in regulating paired social behavior .

Although a direct link between long alleles of the vasopressin gene and social dominance has not yet been established in humans , some behavioral characteristics may nevertheless be reflected in dominant behavior . For example, less trusting and increased alertness in long allele carriers may potentially lead to a more aggressively dominant communication style (due to a greater focus on protection from exploitation ).

It is also important that long alleles of the vasopressin gene affect the level of social inclusion and attachment in adulthood . A study of the Swedish population showed that in men with long alleles ( who are generally less trusting ) , psychological trauma experienced in childhood sharply reduced the level of social inclusion and attachment in adulthood , while in carriers of short alleles, the effects of childhood trauma were less pronounced . In other words , “long-allele” people turned out to be more vulnerable to negative experiences , which echoes the increased reactivity of their stress system . It is also known that stress sharply increases the level of vasopressin in carriers of long alleles . From a functional point of view, this may mean that in a favorable environment, highly sensitive individuals demonstrate high socialization and attachment , and in an unfavorable one, they show more aggression , alienation, or other problems .

In summary , carriers of different alleles differ in social emotions – empathy , anxiety, aggression – and corresponding behavior patterns . Population differences in allele frequencies (for example, a gradient in the frequency of OXTR rs53576 G with a maximum in Africa and a minimum in East Asia ) may partially explain cultural differences in behavior , although this is a cautious assumption . Taken together, current evidence suggests that OXTR and AVPR1A genetics are indeed associated with human sociality , but these relationships are complex : the same “social” allele promotes altruism and emotional warmth in some settings , while in others it may increase vulnerability to stress or conflict .

Chapter III

In this chapter , which I would immodestly allow myself to call “landing” , we will draw “parallels and meridians” between the two closest species Pan troglodytes and Homo Sapiens from the sides of molecular biology , genetics, neurology and psychiatry , anthropology , sociology and evolution .

In a major collaborative research paper, Beware the Cliff : Tracing the Origins of Human Universals, co-authors Peter M. Kappeler and Joan Silk take stock of the enormous body of work published over the past 60 to 70 years by primatologists, anthropologists, biologists , and psychologists that offers some answers to the question of what makes us human — that is, what is the nature and width of the gap that separates us from other primates ? One of the conclusions of their paper is that " comparative studies of our closest biological relatives , the nonhuman primates, provide a logical basis for defining human universals , as well as evidence for the evolutionary continuity of our social behavior . "

Even today, it is rare to see a study in ethnography that does not include or is not based on American anthropologist George P. Murdock's famous Ethnographic Atlas of 1967 and the corresponding Standard Cross-Cultural Survey (George P. Murdock and Douglas R. White 1969). The Ethnographic Atlas is an ethnic-level database of pre-industrial cultural characteristics for 1,265 ethnic groups from around the world . It was compiled from Murdock's own reading and coding of available ethnographies . The primary data sources were available, reliable data from different time periods . The data set includes such variables as location , primary activities , forms of political organization, and cultural practices . In "Nonsense in Tables ? Testing the Validity of an Ethnographic Atlas" Bahrami-Rad, A. Becker, and Henrich conclude : "We assess the validity of the Atlas by comparing it with representative data from descendants of the societies depicted . We document positive relationships between historical indicators collected by ethnographers and self-reported data from 790,000 individuals in 43 countries. "

According to Wikipedia, which cites the Human Relations Area Files, Inc. (HRAF), an international nonprofit membership organization based at Yale University since 1949 , which maintains the Ethnographic Atlas , "of 1,231 societies surveyed between 1960 and 1980 , 588 had frequent polygyny , 453 had occasional polygyny , 186 were monogamous , and 4 had polyandry , although more recent studies have found some form of polyandry in 53 societies , making it more common than previously thought . In cultures that practice polygamy , its prevalence among that population often correlates with social class and socioeconomic status . "

"In 9 percent of all mammal species, males and females will share a common territory for more than one breeding season , and in some cases will bond for life , " Carl Zimmer wrote in his August 2, 2013, New York Times article, "Monogamy and Human Evolution." Drawing on research by Bernard Chapais, Carl Zimmer wrote, "Only 17 percent of human cultures are strictly monogamous . The vast majority of human societies adopt a mix of marriage types , with some people practicing monogamy and others practicing polygamy . ( Most people in these cultures are in monogamous marriages .) "

In her 1992 paper, "Lust , Attraction, and Attachment in Mammalian Reproduction," physical anthropologist Helen E. Fisher concludes : "Mammals exhibit three major categories of emotion for mating and reproduction : (1) sexual attraction , or lust , characterized by the drive for sexual gratification ; (2) attraction , characterized by increased energy and focused attention toward one or more potential mates , accompanied in humans by feelings of elation , "intrusive thinking," and a craving for emotional union with a partner or potential mate ; and (3) attachment , characterized by the maintenance of close social contact in mammals , accompanied in humans by feelings of calm , comfort, and emotional union with a mate . Each emotion category is associated with a discrete constellation of neural correlates , and each has evolved to direct a particular aspect of reproduction . Sexual attraction is associated primarily with estrogens and androgens ; it evolved to motivate humans to seek sexual union . The attraction system is associated primarily with catecholamines ; it evolved to facilitate mate choice , allowing humans to focus their mating efforts on preferred partners . The attachment system is associated primarily with the peptides vasopressin and oxytocin ; it evolved to motivate humans to engage in positive social behavior and to assume species-specific parental responsibilities . During the evolution of the genus Homo , these emotional systems became increasingly independent of each other , a phenomenon that enables the flexibility of human mating and the wide range of modern human mating and reproduction strategies .

2011 follow-up paper, “Serial Monogamy and Covert Adultery : The Evolution and Consequences of a Human Dual Reproductive Strategy,” Helen E. Fisher stated, “Infidelity often involves significant time and metabolic energy . It is also risky ; adultery can result in illness, unwanted pregnancy, and many adverse social consequences , including loss of home , spouse, children, job , community, and/ or health . Yet , despite the nearly universal disapproval of infidelity , this worldwide phenomenon occurs regularly . Most intriguingly , despite numerous correlations between relationship dissatisfaction and marital infidelity ( see Tsapelas, Fisher , and Aron 2010), Glass and Wright (1985) report that among Americans who cheat , 56% of men and 34% of women rate their marriages as “happy” or “very happy . ” Because "adultery" is common worldwide ; because it is associated with a wide range of psychological and sociological factors ; because it correlates with several of the biological underpinnings discussed above ; because promiscuity is a primary reproductive strategy among our closest primate relatives , the bonobos and common chimpanzees ; and because infidelity occurs even in "happy" and "very happy" marriages today ; it is likely that infidelity is a core aspect of our core human reproductive strategy , and that it evolved in tandem with hominid serial social monogamy for adaptive purposes . "

In her 1997 book The Anatomy of Love : A Natural History of Monogamy , Adultery, and Divorce, Helen E. Fisher analyzed the lengths of birth intervals in hunter -gatherer societies, the duration of formed monogamous bonds in many bird and mammal species that would be long enough to raise young to infants , and the possibility that human behavior may represent a remnant of the reproductive strategy of ancestral hominids (superfamily Hominoidea > family Hominidae). She concluded that the cross - cultural human modal peak in divorce coincides with the duration of formed monogamous bonds that would be long enough to raise at least one human young to infanthood , which is about four years for hunter - gatherer societies and six to seven years for sedentary societies .

Continuing with the question of serial monogamy, I would be pleased to suggest that you familiarize yourself with the all-time popular books by famous psychologists “The Eighteen Stages of Love : Its Natural History , Scent, Celebration, and Pursuit” (John C. Leggett, Suzanne Malm) and “Love and Limerence : The Experience of Falling in Love” (Dorothy Tennov)

The genetic study "Analysis of global Y- chromosome diversity suggests a recent shift from polygyny to monogamy in humans" by Dupanloup, Isabelle; Pereira, Luisa; Bertorelle, Giorgio; Calafell, Francesc; Prata, Maria; Amorim, Antonio; Barbujani, Guido; and others; states that the shift from the polygynous behavior pattern of Homo Sapiens to monogamy occurred about 5,000 to 10,000 years ago . This period was associated with the development of agriculture , non-communal land ownership, and inheritance .

Chapter IV

In the last chapter of this article, we need to summarize our research and draw conclusions . And here I will not compile , but carry out active and deep reflection in the field of already studied data of recognized scientists in the fields of molecular biology , anthropology , neurology , genetics, sociology , evidence-based and practical psychology , philosophy and evolution in order to build the most , as far as possible , objective prism through which we can see our reality.

The behavior of all Primates, including you and me , has common genetic , social and biological behavioral mechanisms for survival , regardless of the level of knowledge and development of technology, because they do not directly affect the main evolutionary mechanism - fertility (lat . fertilis, the ability of a sexually mature organism to produce viable offspring ). In other words, the principle of partner selection has remained the same since ancient times , and the presence of any special knowledge in a partner , and, accordingly , technology - to a small extent affects the continued existence of societies . Another matter is rank or socio - economic status . The latter has replaced the concept of rank in modern developed societies , which was inherent , at one time , in underdeveloped societies .

About 15 thousand years ago, human tribes of nomads ( gatherers and hunters ), who used more often polygynous variations of polygamy , began, with the development of agriculture , to move to tribes of landowners who remain in one place and , as a result , expand . This is the time of the formation of the first proto-cities (polises, ancient Greek πόλις, πολιτεία; Latin civitas, a form of state consisting of several rural settlements (tribes) united around one urban center). Then the main scheme of biological social behavior suitable for survival for the rulers of the policies also remained the polygynous form of polygamy ( harem , patriarchal ). Slaves (laymen, peasants, etc. ) were forced to lead a monogamous type of marriage - in an environment of fierce competition for women, in order to increase the chances of preserving their offspring, a longer presence of a man near a woman and a child was required to protect his offspring from a competitor , at least until a more independent age of the child (infant, about 4 years). When on the "outskirts" of the policies or within them the meaning of sole territorial ownership and the right of inheritance weakened ( harem polygynous polygamy ), - relationships also more often became monogamous . Scientists point to such a transition in the period from 5 thousand years BC , but more often - about 1 thousand years ago .

The vast majority of all primates , including you and me , remain various variations of polygamous species in matters of sexual relations for reproduction , despite the popularity of registering monogamous states - marriages . The fact of registering marriages in reality is not connected with monogamy , as well as with the issue of reproduction . In contrast to the cultivated cultural myths about monogamy and polygamy , the reality of our nature is this : reproductive partners choose ( adapt ) to one of two main types of marital unions :

1) Competitive type , when one partner tries to get in line and win the favor of a socio - economic status (or rank, depending on the level of development of society) partner, who , in turn, will only influence the birth of the child , but will either not directly participate in the upbringing in principle , or will participate to an insignificant degree until the child reaches the age of 4-7 years. The rank or status partner is always in huge demand .

2) The second type of marriage unions is monogamous , and it is not at all the one that is often mentioned in cultural creativity as "we will live happily ever after" . Not at all , here it is assumed that one partner is looking for a second , such a partner for the union, on whom it will be possible to fully rely in the matter of maintenance and upbringing of the child after reaching the age of 4-7 years. That is , the union remains until the child reaches the age of the specified periods . Then the union breaks up , as in the first type of marriage union , and only one partner remains a dependent with a child or children for further education and maintenance . A partner on whom it will be possible to fully rely is understood as a person with a very sensitive mental structure , which is now popularly called empathy , who will be existentially afraid of the loss of offspring and will do everything possible and impossible for the survival of the child or children .

The main reason for the frustration that arises when unions for reproduction break up in humans is that people always dream and strive , not without the help of cultural values , of course, to combine two types of unions at the same time - both the struggling and the monogamous . Therefore , it is customary to say that a person is always somewhere in the middle .

When a monogamous union breaks up, one or both partners will eventually have another monogamous union for reproduction . Sometimes subsequent monogamous unions in a series of monogamous unions will have different partners , which is very clever from the point of view of genetics and evolution , since it increases the survival rate of the offspring , but sometimes the partners remain the same . In any case, we have to talk about a series of monogamous unions for the birth of offspring during the life of each individual . As was concluded by the researchers that I indicated above , purely monogamous marriages , which are a series of successive monogamous unions for the birth of offspring with the same partners , account for only about 17% of the total number of all the more than 1,200 societies studied on our planet.

In matters of aggressive behavior of all of us , Primates, we can state that we are by no means the most peaceful animal on our planet . And everything that is inherent in our closest ancestor , the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), is akin to us . Therefore , unfortunately , we should not be surprised at such behavior in us as murders and wars , genocide, infanticide , Nazism and fascism.

We , Homo Sapiens, unlike other primates , have a more developed higher brain ( the third brain , Cortex) and a more developed prefrontal cortex (PFC). Thanks to this, we have incomparable advantages in the matter of imaginative thinking , the result of which is the ability to deeply understand the world around us and create revolutionary technologies in various fields . Also thanks to this, we have such complex mechanisms for teaching our psyche fears that in real life are not them . Only we are characterized by truly indescribable and deep states of excitement when looking at just pictures or thinking about something fictitious . At the same time , unfortunately , only people are ready to tear into tiny pieces with their own teeth and nails any other person or people just for their thoughts , for damaging inanimate cellulose or fabric objects . Only man has the ability to build the most complex strategies of revenge and the most sophisticated forms of both mental and physical violence.

The bonobo or pygmy chimpanzee (Pan paniscus), officially announced by Ernst Schwarz only in 1929, despite the fact that the public was familiar with this species before that , is the most amazing and superior species of societies of all Primates that mankind has ever observed . The essence of the evolution of this subspecies of chimpanzee is that as a result of a natural cataclysm (the flooding of the Congo River about 2 and a half million years ago ) they were left without the rest of the chimpanzees and gorillas - natural competitors in the consumption of plant food .

In other words, we see a society of chimpanzees that evolved about 2.5 million years ago , unburdened by other competitors for basic physiological needs ( food , water , sex , sleep, and warmth). Considering that our species Homo separated from chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) about 5-7 million years ago, this is a kind of second version of chimpanzee evolution along with us .

Bonobos have exceptional advantages over other Primates in choosing their behavioral strategy, taking into account the above factors , not including , unfortunately , humans, who actively hunt and exterminate the population of this chimpanzee species .

It is very interesting to observe that in the absence of competition for food , water and other physical needs , Bonobos societies display the most peaceful of all other Primates, including humans , behavior strategy . If you assumed that you are one of the experts of the Kama Sutra and a professional in sex , then I have to disappoint you - these types of primates are much more skilled than you in sexual pleasures .

It is worth noting separately that about 80% of sexual interactions in Bonobo societies do not lead to orgasm , that is , sex is not a tool for reproduction , but a natural means for reducing normal anxiety (excitement) in society. Their society is a polygamous matriarchy , not a polyandrous type , but a polygynandrous one (let me remind you that each male has several wives and each female has several husbands ). Men remain in the group , and women , although not driven away by force , are encouraged to move to neighboring groups .

Here I will try not to go into the topics of molecular biology and neurology , since this is not the purpose of this work . But, briefly, I will clarify that the direct sexual actions of Primates - firstly , along with other natural physical and cognitive loads, are also an integral part of its distribution of energy produced by the body. Secondly , productive ( in this case - high - quality , but not necessarily leading to fertilization ) sex - is the most effective basic and natural mediator of the higher nervous system , which leads to normal metabolism of the body , especially - in the work of the autonomous peripheral nervous systems .

There are discussions about the complete friendliness of bonobos , because they are capable of defense and aggressive resistance to outside societies that do not fit their standards .

On the contrary, the hierarchical behavior of societies among all Primates, including you and me , has a severe impact on the mental behavior of many members of society .

The highly respected neuroindocrinologist , professor and primatologist Robert M. Sapolsky in his 2004 paper Social Status and Health in Humans and Other Animals writes in the summary of his work : “Dominance hierarchies exist in numerous social species , and rank in such hierarchies can significantly affect an individual’s quality of life . Rank can also significantly affect human health , particularly with respect to stress-related diseases . This article first examines the nature of stress , the stress response and stress-related diseases , and the varieties of hierarchical systems in animals . I then review the literature from non-human primates concerning the links between rank and adrenocortical , cardiovascular , reproductive , and immune system functioning . As shown here, the relationships are not monolithic . Finally, I consider whether rank is a relevant concept for humans , and argue that socioeconomic status (SES) is the closest human approximation to social rank, and that SES has a profound effect on health ." Mr. Sapolsky argues here that the hierarchy system of the other Primates is clearly replicated in the human version - socioeconomic status . And , most importantly , it has the same effect on the mental health of most members of human society and the other Primates.

Remember, at the end of Chapter II I wrote about genetic influences on the behavior of individuals in chimpanzee and human societies ? Well, the closely related bonobo species Pan paniscus does not have the DupB deletion at all - all bonobos have the RS3 microsatellite. In other words, there are simply no individuals with short alleles in bonobo society . It is believed that the absence of this polymorphism in bonobos can partially explain their more peaceful society with strong intersexual bonds and the absence of aggressive alpha males , unlike chimpanzees. In chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), the high frequency of the "short" variant could have been evolutionarily fixed due to their patriarchal social structure . Nevertheless , within the species, the presence of both variants is maintained : even in one population, individuals with different genotypes coexist , which leads to a variety of behavioral styles .

I also urge you to remember that the presence of long alleles in male chimpanzees in their societies is manifested by a more pronounced dominance and a more impulsive style of behavior . At the same time, in females with the same genotype, it is manifested in the "beta" variation , that is, with low dominance and high sociality , a "smart social" style of behavior , implying a more developed social savvy , the ability to cooperate and dominate at the same time . This is why bonobo societies have a polygynandrous matriarchy . And males with long alleles in a bonobo society, under the influence of a favorable atmosphere, also exhibit a "beta" variation of behavior instead of "alpha" .

Let us also recall from Chapter II that in the work of WD Hopkins, ZR Donaldson, LJ Young, depending on the subspecies, about ~60-80% of representatives of chimpanzee societies (Pan troglodytes) carry the short version of the allele , and only ~20–40 % – the long allele . In other words , ~60-80% of the society do not have leadership potential and only ~20–40 % – with the potential for dominance in the “alpha” or “beta” variants .

In addition , in an experiment with a trust game (Trust Game), it was found that men with the SS genotype for RS3 ( both alleles are short ) transferred significantly more money to their partner , trusting him , despite the risk of betrayal , compared to carriers of at least one long allele . That is, "short" alleles are associated with a greater tendency to trust . Moreover , the same SS individuals also showed increased reciprocity - being in the role of a trustee , they returned a larger share of the received funds back to the trustor . On the contrary, people with one or two long alleles of RS3 behaved more cautiously : they were characterized by reduced gullibility and less willingness to cooperate , presumably due to a greater fear of being deceived .

So, the famous Gestalt psychologist and pioneer of social psychology Solomon Eliot Asch in a series of experiments conducted by him to study propaganda , the results of which he published under the title "The Effect of Group Pressure on Changing and Distorting Judgments" showed that 75% of subjects at least once succumbed to group opinion and gave the wrong answer . On average, about 33% of participants constantly agreed with the obviously incorrect opinion of the majority . And only 25% remained completely independent and did not succumb to pressure even once .

In their experiments and paper, "A Replication of Ash's 'Group Pressure Effects on Opinion and Judgment Bias'," authors JAMES O. WHITTAKER, CHARLES D. ROSENAU, HANLEY FARNSWORTH , and RICHARD GROSZ state : "The results obtained in this replication of Ash 's work were closely consistent with those reported in the original studies . "

The behavior of Bonobo societies corresponds to the behavior of a limited and scattered part of people in developed countries with comfortable living conditions and minimal risks of violence , as well as liberal values . In other words, more confident in the future and prosperous societies show greater generosity , altruism , as well as greater openness and freedom in relation to sexual social interactions . Look at the most developed countries in terms of democracy and liberalism more closely - and you will see that part of society ( let it be a kind of mini society ) there is more loyal to the issue of other people's opinions , behavior , gender differences and is characterized by tolerance for sexual interactions in society . At the same time , the population of such mini societies is characterized as the happiest .

But , unlike Bonobos , this part of society, scattered , for obvious reasons , across different countries, is not concentrated in one place , and for the same reasons, probably will not be able to accomplish this .

In a certain sense , in fact , Bonobos represent a kind of alternative utopian society for you and me , but not yet for them, an ideal society in which there is a much higher chance of revealing all the potentials of self-actualization for the maximum number of representatives of a given society .

The only pity is that, unlike the Bonobos (Pan paniscus), some parts of societies have long been unable to simply fence themselves off from other social groups with a river . What we observe in our world is the indoctrination of various mini-societies into many different other societies . In reality, we have societies consisting of many different subtypes of societies with different views on their behavioral strategy for survival . Imagine how chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and Bonobos (Pan paniscus) would cooperate, having received direct access to their very different societies... How realistic and peaceful would the interaction of such polarized communities be for you ?

Yes , it seems that in our world the idea of assimilating different cultures into a single whole under the flag of goodness and peace has failed...

Particularly distressing is the fact that , while both chimpanzee species (Pan troglodytes and Pan paniscus) are endangered according to the IUCN Red List , in 2017 the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals chose the common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) for special protection instead of the bonobo (Pan paniscus) …